Monday, September 24, 2012

windows7-features

1. Speed
Even aside from incompatibilities and other issues that many people had with Vista, one of the most straightforward was speed – it just felt too sluggish compared to XP, even on pumped up hardware. Windows 7 brings a more responsive and sprightly feel and Microsoft has spent a lot of time and effort getting the Start Menu response just right.
Microsoft has also recognised the need for improved desktop responsiveness, which gives the impression that the computer is responding to the user and that they are in control – something that was often lacking with Vista.
You can also expect faster boot times. And the boot sequence is now not only prettier than it was with Vista, but it’s speedier too.
2. Compatibility
In simple terms, compatibility on Windows 7 will be far better than it was with Vista. Many programs that individuals and companies used on Windows XP did not work immediately and required updates, but with Windows 7 almost all applications that work on Vista should still run.
In essence, Windows Vista has done most of the hard work for Windows 7 in this respect.
3. Lower hardware requirements
Vista gained a reputation for making even the beefiest hardware look rather ordinary. Windows 7, however, will run well on lower end hardware, making the transition from Window XP less painful.
Microsoft is even pushing Windows 7 for netbooks. This could provide a modern replacement for Windows XP, which has found a new lease of life as the OS of choice on netbooks, supplanting Linux. The downside is that Windows 7 Starter Edition, as it will be called, will be limited to only three applications running at the same time.
4. Search and organisation
One of the best things about Windows 7 is the improved search tool, which now rivals Mac OS X’s Spotlight to be able to find what you need quickly and easily. For example, typing ‘mouse’ will bring up the mouse option within the control panel or typing a word will display it and split it up neatly into files, folders and applications.
Also introduced is the concept of Libraries, which takes the ‘My Documents’ concept a stage further. The various Libraries, such as Documents and Pictures, will watch multiple locations which you can add yourself, so you don’t have to keep everything in one place.
5. TaskBar/Start menu
At first glance, the task bar looks like nothing has much has changed since Vista. In fact, that’s not the case and it’s a lot more powerful. Microsoft is now making best use of its aero technology. By default, taskbar icons are now larger and items are grouped together and are not labelled with clumsy text.
If you have multiple Word documents or Windows Explorer windows open then you’ll see a stack appear on the task bar. Hover the mouse over the app and each Window will be visible in a thumbnail. Hover over each thumbnail and it will become visible, while all other open windows temporarily disappear, save for their outlines. You can close each document or Window down from the thumbnail directly or click on it to bring it to the front.
Even better, this works with individual tabs in Internet Explorer 8, though unfortunately not Firefox.
Right clicking gives a ‘Jump menu ‘, giving you speedily access to recent documents and you can pin apps of your choice directly to the taskbar.
In the Start menu, a small arrow to the right of applications such as Word now expands to give a list of recent documents and any can be pinned so you can keep one permanently on the list.
6. Aero-shake
Our favourite new visual feature is called ‘Aero Shake’. If you have a multitude of Windows open but want to focus on just the one you can all you have to do is grab it by the title bar (at the top) and shake with the mouse. This minimises all the other Windows leaving just the one you’ve grabbed on the desktop.
7. Stacking
Another great touch is Stacking. You simply drag a Window to the sides of your screen and it will stick automatically to the side filling half the screen, making it quick and easy to view documents side by side. Move to the top and it will maximise to the whole screen.
8. Peace from UAC
Vista’s User Account Control (UAC) was one of the headline annoyances in Windows Vista. In a reaction to malware problems, the Windows designers introduced the UAC, a dialogue box that popped up every time you made any changes to Windows when installing apps. It proved quite annoying, especially to power users who tended to turn it off straight away, thereby negating any benefit it might have.
In Windows 7, a slider has been added, enabling users to tone down its nagging factor, making you less likely to turn it off completely. It works too and one or two notches down should be enough for most. In this state it actually gives more confidence that your OS is looking after you.
9. Gamma curve
The display properties now boast a useful gamma curve feature enabling you to calibrate your display. Set aside 10 minutes to go through it carefully and you can really give your monitor image a boost, which will pay dividends when you’re sitting in front of a screen all day. Think of it as a free monitor upgrade.
10. Touch
The most whizz-bang visual feature to come to Windows 7 is its touch capability. This of course will only be available to those with a touch enabled PC, such as HP’s Touch Smart range, but for those suitably equipped it will provide a new way of interacting with their PC.
The video will let you open apps from the taskbar, scroll up and down by flicking, and zoom and rotate pictures by holding and turning. Tap and holding reveals ‘right-click’ context menus. At present, it’s mainly used for kitchen based media centres but it could add a whole new wow factor to corporate presentations – at least until the novelty wears off.

Difference between Windows XP and Windows 7

There are lots of difference between the windows XP and the Windows 7. Here are some of the differences listed below
• The shutdown and the start up is very fast in Windows 7 when compared to the Windows XP
• There are not much graphical components present in the windows XP but Windows 7 provides good Graphical User Interface (GUI).
• In windows 7 there is no necessity for the drivers to be installed but in Windows XP it is necessary to install drivers.
• The Kernel of windows 7 is very good when compared to the Windows XP.
• User defined themes can be implemented in Windows 7 but in Windows XP themes cannot be created by the user.
• The windows defender in Windows 7 provides maximum security to the operating system but in Windows XP this feature is not available.
 If you skipped over Windows Vista like so many others have, you may be in for a shock when you upgrade from Windows XP to Windows 7. Microsoft’s newest operating system is a major shift in usability, convenience, and overall computing from previous versions of Windows.
Although not all are earth-shattering changes, listed below are the Top 10 differences between Windows XP and Windows 7. Many of these changes may seem like a big deal because you’ve gotten so used to how things work in XP. If you are considering upgrading from XP to Windows 7, be prepared for these changes.

1. No e-mail Client

Outlook Express (OE) has been a trusted friend since Windows 95, so much so that many people have never used another e-mail client. OE was removed from Windows Vista but was replaced with Windows Mail. Strangely, Windows does not ship with any e-mail client at all. Users must either purchase an e-mail client such as Outlook, use a free service such as Windows Live Mail, or download an open source e-mail client such as Thunderbird.

2. 32-bit vs. 64-bit

Although Windows XP did have a 64-bit version (Windows XP x64), many people are unaware that it even existed. When upgrading from XP to Windows 7, you will have to decide whether you want the 32-bit version (x86) or the 64-bit version (x64). Which you choose largely depends on your computer’s hardware and the availability of drivers and other software to make everything work in your PC.

3. Aero Desktop

The Aero Desktop is really nothing more than a collection of window and desktop behaviors that make Windows 7 the prettiest version of the operating system to date. Features such as Aero Snap let you quickly organize open windows and transparency makes it easy to see what’s underneath other windows. With Windows XP think opaque, with Windows 7, think translucent.

4. Documents and Settings

The Documents and Settings folder, the location for all protected personal files and folders, has been replaced with a simple Users folders. Not a big deal, but many tech support personnel have spent hundreds of hours answering the simple question of where the Documents and Settings folder went in Windows 7.

5. Start Menu

The Start menu in Windows 7 has been completely reworked and has been met with several criticisms. No longer does the Start menu use fly-outs and scroll-outs to show you what shortcuts to programs and folders you have on your computer.
Now you must use a more conservative folder system that forces you to use a scroll bar to access shortcuts that can’t be displayed because you’ve reached the maximum number that can be shown at one time. Luckily, if you really like the Windows XP Start menu, there is a way to make the Windows 7 Start menu behave like XP

6. Ribbon

Introduced in Office 2007, it is clear that Microsoft will continue to push the Ribbon interface over the more familiar drop-down menu and toolbar approach to using programs. If you want to get a taste of the Ribbon, start up Microsoft Paint or WordPad on a computer running Windows 7 and you can see for yourself whether the Ribbon is going to be useful or just another technology forced upon you.

7. Libraries

Windows 7 Libraries are nothing more than collections of files that are similar. Similar content that is located in multiple areas of your computer are brought together into the Library system to make finding files easier.
Of course, you can choose to use or not use Libraries depending on whether you find them useful. However, if you store a lot of media on your computer such as music or video and you want access to them without having to physically move them the same location or folder, Libraries may be for you.

8. DirectX 11

If you are a gamer, you know that you must keep up with advances in both hardware and software technology to get the most from your games. Windows XP will not support DirectX versions beyond 9.0c so if your games require a higher version such as 10 or 11, you have no choice but to move a more recent version of Windows.
As more and more people make the switch to Windows 7, the game developers and publishers are likely to take full advantage of more recent DirectX versions. Stick with XP too long, and you may be shut out of the newest games.

9. HomeGroup

Whether you have a simple or complicated home network, you know that any help you can get to make administration easier is always welcomed. HomeGroup is a major shift in home networking simplicity that makes older paradigms seem archaic.
Not much has changed in setting up a home network since Windows NT 4, an operating system from before Windows 95 that you may never have heard of. Marrying simplicity, easy setup, and stable connections, HomeGroup takes the guesswork and troubleshooting out of home networking on any scale.

10. Touch Support

Although touch interfaces have been around for a better part of a decade, touch has not yet replaced the familiar keyboard/mouse combination of navigating personal computers. Still, Windows 7 is the first operating system from the software giant to natively support touch as a computer interface.
If you think that you would like to be on the frontier of this emerging interface paradigm, Windows 7 is your only real choice if you want to run a Microsoft operating system
 

Friday, September 21, 2012

Computer Hardware

MOTHERBOARD
The motherboard is the main component found in PC and Macintosh computers. The motherboard is what allows various hardware components to transfer information to each other. As computers advanced, so did motherboards; below is a listing of the various Motherboard form factors.
Full-ATBaby-AT
LPX
Full-ATX
Mini-ATX
NLX

Full-AT (12" wide x 13.8" deep) Matches the original IBM AT motherboard design, which only fits into full size AT or tower cases only, not being produced much any more, if any.
  • This form factor is no longer produced because it cannot be placed into the popular Baby-AT chassis.
Baby-AT (8.57" wide x 13.04" deep) Almost the same as the original IBM XT motherboard with modifications in the screw hole position to fit into AT style case, with connections built onto the motherboard to fit the holes in the case.
  • Specific placement of the keyboard and the I/O slots.
  • This board also cannot be placed into the slimline case.
LPX (9.00" wide x 13.00" deep) Developed by Western Digital when making motherboards, which was duplicated by many other manufacturers and is no longer made by Western Digital.
  • The LPX motherboard riser card contains all of the expansion slots.
  • Placement of the video, parallel, two serial and PS/2 connections have changed locations.
Full-ATX – (12" wide x 9.6" deep) / Mini-ATX – (11.2" wide x 8.2" deep) The official specifications were released by Intel in 1995 and was revised to version 2.01 in February 1997. The ATX form factor is an advancement over previous AT style motherboards. Therefore requires a new case design. ATX is not an abbreviation, it is actually a trademark which belongs to Intel.
  • The ATX motherboard has a stacked I/O connector panel mounted on the motherboard.
  • On a socket 7 ATX motherboard, the socket has been placed a further distance from the expansion slots, allowing for long boards to be placed in easier.
  • Single keyed internal power supply connector. This is the Molex power connector, ATX 2.01. Standby voltage needs to be greater than 720 mA. The connector now cannot be placed in improperly. While the Molex power connector allows for 5v and 3.3v to be connected, it is recommended that only a 3.3v be connected to the motherboard.
  • Relocation of the memory and the CPU creating better ventilation and easier upgrade.
  • Power management possible with proper BIOS support.
NLX (Supports motherboards with overall dimensions of 9.0" x 13.6" [maximum] to 8.0" x 10.0" [minimum]) Implemented in 1998 by Intel and is similar to the LPX form factor; however, includes several new improvements.
  • Support for the Pentium II
  • Support for AGP
  • Support for USB.
  • Support for DIMM.
  • Easier Access to internal components
Support for motherboards that can be removed without using tools.
AT / ATX DIFFERENCES
Below is some of the ways in determining if your motherboard is an AT motherboard or an ATX motherboard.
The Keyboard:
AT Motherboard = 5 pin large connector
ATX Motherboard = 6 pin mini connector.

MB Power Connector:
AT Motherboard = Single Row two connectors 5v & 12v
ATX Motherboard = Double row single connector 5v,12v, and 3.3v



The Motherboard is a printed circuit that is the foundation of a computer and allows the CPU, RAM, and all other computer hardware components to function with each other. Below is a graphic illustration of the ASUS P5AD2-E motherboard and some basic explanations of each of the major portions of the motherboard. 

The CPU, or the Central Processing Unit, is the brain of the computer and the single most important chip in the computer. Modern processors contain millions of transistors which are etched onto a tiny square silicon called a die, which is about the with of a standard thumb. The CPU performs the system's calculating and processing. The majority of personal computers include the Intel processors. Intel released the first processor, the 4004, in 1970. Today, the market is being shared by other companies such as the popular AMD processor manufactured by the AMD Company
MATH COPROCESSORS
Math coprocessors were additional chips which could be purchased with 386 and older chips. This additional chip was left as an option to help reduce the cost of computers. Coprocessors allow the hardware for floating-point math. Math coprocessors will speed your computer's operation when utilizing software applications that take advantage of its capabilities. Computers now no longer require the extra purchase of the math compressor. Below is a listing of computer processors and their coprocessors.
Processor
Coprocessor
8086
8087
8088
8087
80286
80287
80386SX
80387SX
80386SL
80387SX
80386SLC
80387SX
80486SLC
80387SX
80486SLC2
80387SX
80386DX
80387DX
80486SX
80487SX, DX2/Overdrive
80487SX
Included FPU
80486SX2
DX2/Overdrive
80486DX
Included FPU
80486DX2
Included FPU
80486DX4
Included FPU
Pentium/Pentium-MMX
Included FPU
Pentium Pro
Included FPU
Pentium II
Included FPU
Pentium III
Included FPU


COMPATIBLE INTEL PROCESSORS
Several companies such as AMD and Cyrix are also developing processors which are completely compatible with Intel processors. This means that they are capable of emulating every processor instruction in the the Intel chips.
 

80386 - Some 386DX 16MHz Intel processors had a small bug which appeared as a software problem. The bug occurred when running true 32-bit code in a program such as within OS/2 2.x, Unix/386, or Windows in Enhanced mode. The bug would cause the system to lock up and is a difficult issue to determine without having Intel actually look at the chip. Chips that passed the test, and all subsequent chips which were bug-free, were marked with a double-sigma symbol. 386DX chips that are not marked with either of these symbols may have not been tested by Intel and may be defective.
PENTIUM - One of the most famous and most known bugs is the Pentium FPU flaw / bug discovered by a a mathematician in October 1994. This bug involved the Pentium incorrectly performing floating-point calculations with certain number combinations, with errors anywhere from the third digit on up. This issue does not occur on 120MHz and above Pentium computers but is known to occur on Intel Pentiums 100MHz and below.
Ways of testing your Pentium CPU to determine if it has the Pentium flaw.
Correct Answer
962,306,957,033 / 11,010,046 = 87,402.6282027341

Incorrect Answer
962,306,957,033 / 11,010,046 = 87,399.5805831329

Correct Answer
4,195,835 / 3,145,727 = 1.33382044913624100

Incorrect Answer
4,195,835 / 3,145,727 = 1.33373906890203759

Another way of testing for this flaw is to use Microsoft Excel and enter the below formula.
=4195835-((4195835/3145727)*3145727)
When entering this formula you should receive a returned result of 0.
INTERPOSER
A number of Intel Motherboards incorrectly support the Write Back mode of the Intel Pentium OverDrive processor. Because of this you will be unable to successfully upgrade your CPU. However, to rectify this issue, Intel created a chip called the interposer. This chip allows the computer to work around the design errors.
Documentation for installing the interposer should be included with the interposer. If by chance documentation is not included you can find alternate installation help at Intel's web site (Search for Interposer).

INTEL SOCKET INFORMATION
Intel designed a set of sockets. Each of these sockets supported a certain range of processors. Below we have listed the complete specifications and layouts of each of these sockets.
SOCKET 1 SPECIFICATIONS
PINS
PIN LAYOUT
VOLTAGE
SUPPORTED PROCESSORS
169 Pins
17 x 17 PGA
5v
SX / SX2, DX/DX2, DX4 OverDrive
SOCKET 2 SPECIFICATIONS
PINS
PIN LAYOUT
VOLTAGE
SUPPORTED PROCESSORS
238
19 x 19 PGA
5v
SX/SX2, DX/DX2, DX4 OverDrive, 486 Pentium OverDrive
SOCKET 3 SPECIFICATIONS
PINS
PIN LAYOUT
VOLTAGE
SUPPORTED PROCESSORS
237
19 x 19 PGA
5v/3.3v
SX/SX2, DX/DX2, DX4 OverDrive, 486 Pentium OverDrive
SOCKET 4 SPECIFICATIONS
PINS
PIN LAYOUT
VOLTAGE
SUPPORTED PROCESSORS
273
21 x 21 PGA
5v
Pentium 60/66MHz, Pentium 60/66 OverDrive
SOCKET 5 SPECIFICATIONS
PINS
PIN LAYOUT
VOLTAGE
SUPPORTED PROCESSORS
320
37 x 37 PGA
3.3v
Pentium 75-133, Pentium 75+ OverDrive
SOCKET 6 SPECIFICATIONS
Slot 6 was thought and planed for but was never actually implemented into any system.
PINS
PIN LAYOUT
VOLTAGE
SUPPORTED PROCESSORS
235
19 x 19 PGA
3.3v
DX4, 486 Pentium OverDrive
SOCKET 7 SPECIFICATIONS
PINS
PIN LAYOUT
VOLTAGE
SUPPORTED PROCESSORS
321
37 x 37 PGA
Voltage Regulator Module
Pentium 75-300, Pentium 75+ OverDrive
SLOT 1 SPECIFICATIONS
PINS
PIN LAYOUT
VOLTAGE
SUPPORTED PROCESSORS
242
Slot
Voltage Regulator Module
Pentium II / Pentium III Processors


PROCESSOR HISTORY AND INFORMATION
Below is a listing of all known processor manufacturers made to date. In the below list is information about major processors listed by the date manufactured as well as a brief description of the technology and advances of each of the processors.
INTEL 4004 - Microprocessor introduced in 1970 with the speed of 108KHz was the worlds first microprocessor.
INTEL 8080 - Microprocessor introduced in 1974 running at the speed of 2 MHz was used in the world's first PC, the Altair.
INTEL 8086 (Code Name: P1)- Microprocessor first introduced in 1976. The 80086 had a 16-bit architecture that allowed it to work with 16-bit binary numbers and pass them through a 16-bit data bus. The 8086 was available in clock speeds of 5MHz, 8MHz, and 10MHz.
MOTOROLA 68000 - Microprocessor released in 1979 was later chosen by Apple for the Macintosh computer.
INTEL 8087 - Floating-point math compressor compliant with the 8086 / 8080 microprocessor family.
INTEL 8088 - Microprocessor released in 1979. The 8088 was the first Processor used in the original IBM PC and XT personal computers because it was less expensive than the 8086 microprocessor because of the availability of less expensive eight-bit data bus supporting chips made it the microprocessor for the IBM PC. The 8088 was available in speeds from 4.77 MHz and 8MHz.and used the 16-bit architecture allowing it to work internally with 16-digit numbers. The 8088 had the ability of addressing up to 1MB of RAM.
INTEL 80286 (Code Name: P2) - Microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1982 which commonly is referred to as the 286 processor. The 286 processor supported 16-bit architecture, supported virtual memory, and was available in clock speeds of 8MHz, 10MHz, and 12MHz. The 286 was around 20 times faster than the predecessor 8088.
INTEL 80287 - A compliant processor to the 286, a floating-point math coprocessor. Specially designed 286 chips have the capability of placing the optional 80287 processor on top of it, giving the computer a math coprocessor.
INTEL 80386DX (Code Name: P3) - Microprocessor manufactured in 1985 was the next generation of Intel processors. The 80386DX included the math compressor, unlike the 80386SX, and still featured the 32-bit architecture and built-in multitasking. The chip was available in clock speeds of 16MHz, 20MHz,  25MHz, and 33MHz.
SPARC - Released in 1987 is short for Scaleable Processor  ARChiture by Sun - used RISC (Reduced Instruction Set) to speed up processing.
INTEL 80486DX (Code Name: P4) - Microprocessor released April 10th 1989. The 486DX featured a built-in memory cache and 32-bit architecture. It had more than three times the computing power of the 386DX and was available in clock speeds of 25MHz, 33MHz, and 50MHz.
INTEL 80386SX - Microprocessor introduced in 1989 was the next generation of Intel processors. The 80386SX lacked a math coprocessor but still featured the 32-bit architecture and built-in multitasking. The chip was available in clock speeds of 16MHz, 20MHz, 25MHz, and 33MHz.
INTEL 80386SL - Microprocessor introduced in 1990 which used low power consumption and was used mainly in portable computers.
INTEL 80486SX (Code Name: P45 / P23 ) - Microprocessor introduced in April 1991 which is a less expensive version of the 80486DX. It lacked the math coprocessor of the 80486DX and ran at lower clock speeds than the DX; it ran at 16MHz, 20MHz, 25MHz, or 33 MHz.
INTEL 80486DX2 (Code Name: P24 / P24S) - Microprocessor first introduced in March 2, 1992. It was based upon the popular 486DX; however, it featured internal clock speeds that doubled that of the system that operated it. Thus, a DX2 on a system with a 33MHz bus would run at 66MHz. Also known as the i486DX2.
INTEL 80486DX4 (Code Name: P24C / P24CT)- Microprocessor first introduced in 1994. The 486DX4 would triple that of the system that operated it.
INTEL PENTIUM (Code Name: P5 (Pentium 60 - 66MHz))- Microprocessor introduced March 22, 1993 designed to replace the 486 processors. The new Pentium had an additional 1.9 million transistors when compared to the 80486DX. The Pentium has a 32-bit address bus and a 64-bit data bus, and it can operate at speeds of 60MHz to 200MHz. The Pentium was released in three generations. The first-generation of Pentium processors was the Pentium 60 and 66 MHz. These chips used a 273-pin PGA form factor and ran on 5v power. Intel announced the release of a second-generation introduced March 7, 1994 included new processors from 75, 90, 100, 120, 133, 150, 166, and 200 MHz. The processors used 296-pin SPGA form factor that is physically incompatible with the first generation versions. The third-generation of Pentium processors, code named P55C, were introduced January 1997, which incorporated the new technology MMX. The Pentium MMX processors were available 166, 200, 233 MHz, and 266 MHz mobile version.
INTEL PENTIUM PRO (Code Name: P6) - Microprocessor which was designed for the corporate users and for high-end servers and workstations, preferably those using Windows NT. The Pentium Pro CPUs are extremely fast with 32-bit applications and 3-D image processing and rendering when compared to previous Intel processors. The chip runs at 166MHz and higher
INTEL PENTIUM II (Code Name: Klamath) - Initially the Pentium II 233MHz was released in 1997 and introduced a new physical architecture which encased a circuit board within a plastic case. With this new technology, this allowed the chip to be easily added and removed. However, previous owners of Pentium motherboard could not upgrade to this new type of chip unless the motherboard they had included a SLOT 1 technology. The Pentium II runs from 233MHz to 450MHz.
INTEL PENTIUM III - Initially the Pentium III 500 MHz was released in 1999; shortly after its release, Intel introduced the Pentium III 550 MHz processor. The Pentium III chip continued to use the SLOT 1 and could be used on previous Pentium II motherboards with BIOS support. Before its release, a big controversy concerning privacy. The Intel Pentium III chips have an ID for each chip helping to authenticate peoples' purchases over the Internet. However, many argued that this was another way for someone to find out personal information about the individual without their consent. Intel disabled this feature by default and allowed it to be enabled after releasing the chip.

CPU

Also known as a processor or microprocessor the CPU was first developed by Intel in 1974 and is short for Central Processing Unit. The computer CPU is responsible for handling all instructions and calculation it receives from other hardware components in the computer and software programs running on the computer. Below is a graphic example of what the original Intel Pentium processor looks like.
Today there are several different manufactures of computer processors. However, Intel and AMD are the leaders in the PC market.
  • Additional information and help with computer processors can also be found on our CPU help page.
  • Additional information about installing a computer hardware including a computer processor can be found on document CHADD.
Many new computer users may improperly call their computer and even sometimes their monitor a CPU. When referring to your computer or monitor it is proper to refer to them as either computer or monitor and not CPU.

LGA

Short for Land Grid Array, LGA is the interface used to connect Intel Pentium 4 processors and AMD Opteron to the computer motherboard.

PGA

Short for Pin Grid Array, PGA is a type of chip where the connecting pins are located on the bottom.


RISC

Short for Reduced Instruction Set Computer and pronounced as risk, RISC is a processor architecture that requires less instructions to operate, causing the processors to be faster than earlier CISC processors. Today, RISC and CISC processors share many of the same instruction techniques and operate at similar speeds.

CISC

Short for Complex Instruction Set Computer, CISC is currently the standard in the majority of PCs today that supports as many as two hundred instructions. Today's CISC chips use many techniques formerly associated only with RISC chips.